Editorial: Culture

The original idea for this issue of M/C was for contributors to discuss the many and varying possible meanings of the word "culture" and/or the various uses of the concepts of culture (in general) and cultures (in particular)

Glacier motion estimation using SAR offset-tracking procedures

Two image-to-image patch offset techniques for estimating feature motion between satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images are discussed. Intensity tracking, based on patch intensity cross-correlation optimization, and coherence tracking, based on patch coherence optimization, are used to estimate the movement of glacier surfaces between two SAR images in both slant-range and azimuth direction. The accuracy and application range of the two methods are examined in the case of the surge of Monacobreen in Northern Svalbard between 1992 and 1996. Offset-tracking procedures of SAR images are an alternative to differential SAR interferometry for the estimation of glacier motion when differential SAR interferometry is limited by loss of coherence, i.e., in the case of rapid and incoherent flow and of large acquisition time intervals between the two SAR images. In addition, an offset-tracking procedure in the azimuth direction may be combined with differential SAR interferometry in the slant-range direction in order to retrieve a two-dimensional displacement map when SAR data of only one orbit configuration are available

Brief Communication: On the magnitude and frequency of Khurdopin glacier surge events

The return periods of Karakoram glacier surges are poorly quantified. Here, we present evidence of an historic surge of the Khurdopin Glacier that began in the mid-1970s and peaked in 1979. Measured surface displacements reached >5 km a⁻¹, two orders of magnitude faster than during quiescence. The Khurdopin Glacier next surged in the late 1990s, equating to a return period of 20 years. Surge evolution in the two events shows remarkable similarity suggesting a common trigger. Surge activity in the Karakoram needs to be better understood if accurate mass balance assessments of Hindu-Kush–Karakoram–Himalaya glaciers are to be made

Glacier dynamics over the last quarter of a century at Helheim, Kangerdlugssuaq and 14 other major Greenland outlet glaciers

The Greenland ice sheet is experiencing increasing rates of mass loss, the majority of which results from changes in discharge from tidewater glaciers. Both atmospheric and ocean drivers have been implicated in these dynamic changes, but understanding the nature of the response has been hampered by the lack of measurements of glacier flow rates predating the recent period of warming. Here, using Landsat-5 data from 1985 onwards, we extend back in time the record of surface velocities and ice-front position for 16 of Greenland's fastest-flowing tidewater glaciers, and compare these to more recent data from Landsat-7 and satellite-borne synthetic-aperture radar. Climate re-analysis data and sea surface temperatures from 1982 show that since 1995 most of Greenland and its surrounding oceans have experienced significant overall warming, and a switch to a warming trend. During the period from 1985 to 1995 when Greenland and the surrounding oceans were not warming, major tidewater outlet glaciers around Greenland, including Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim, were dynamically stable. Since the mid-1990s, glacier discharge has consistently been both greater and more variable. Together, these observations support the hypothesis that recent dynamic change is a rapid response to climate forcing. Both air and ocean temperatures in this region are predicted to continue to warm, and will therefore likely drive further change in outlet glacier discharge

Effects of undercutting and sliding on calving: a global approach applied to Kronebreen, Svalbard

In this paper, we study the effects of basal friction, sub-aqueous undercutting and glacier geometry on the calving process by combining six different models in an offline-coupled workflow: a continuum–mechanical ice flow model (Elmer/Ice), a climatic mass balance model, a simple subglacial hydrology model, a plume model, an undercutting model and a discrete particle model to investigate fracture dynamics (Helsinki Discrete Element Model, HiDEM). We demonstrate the feasibility of reproducing the observed calving retreat at the front of Kronebreen, a tidewater glacier in Svalbard, during a melt season by using the output from the first five models as input to HiDEM. Basal sliding and glacier motion are addressed using Elmer/Ice, while calving is modelled by HiDEM. A hydrology model calculates subglacial drainage paths and indicates two main outlets with different discharges. Depending on the discharge, the plume model computes frontal melt rates, which are iteratively projected to the actual front of the glacier at subglacial discharge locations. This produces undercutting of different sizes, as melt is concentrated close to the surface for high discharge and is more diffuse for low discharge. By testing different configurations, we show that undercutting plays a key role in glacier retreat and is necessary to reproduce observed retreat in the vicinity of the discharge locations during the melting season. Calving rates are also influenced by basal friction, through its effects on near-terminus strain rates and ice velocity

Proxy Climatic Data from Tree Rings at Lake Louise, Alberta : A Preliminary Report

Preliminary results are presented of studies using oxygen isotopes and tree-ring densitometry to derive proxy climatic data from Picea engelmannii and Abies Iasiocarpa in the Canadian Rockies. Significant correlations occur between mean annual temperatures and δ18O determinations from five year groups of tree rings from three trees. However, unexplained anomalies in these relationships indicate that ring-width effects may reduce this correlation in some cases and that further exploratory work is necessary. Indexed chronologies for the period 1705-1980 were developed for 15 tree-ring variables derived by X-ray densitometry from 16 Picea cores. Principal components analysis was used to identify three groups of highly inter-correlated variables related to ring width, earlywood density and latewood characteristics. Each group responds differently to climatic controls increasing the potential for development of proxy climatic data over ring-width measures alone. Transfer function development is incomplete but preliminary results for summer temperature (June and July, R2 = 0,46) and December-March precipitation (R2 = 0,40) are presented as examples. Using these equations preliminary reconstructions for the period 1710-1980 are presented.On présente ici les résultats préliminaires d'études dont le but est d'obtenir des données climatiques par l'intermédiaire, chez Picea engelmannii et Abies lasiocarpa, dans les Rocheuses du Canada, des isotopes d'oxygène et de la densité des anneaux de croissance. On obtient des corrélations significatives entre les températures moyennes annuelles et les déterminations au δ18O sur les anneaux de croissance de trois arbres, par périodes de 5 ans. Toutefois, des anomalies encore inexpliquées révèlent que certaines caractéristiques de la largeur des anneaux pourraient, dans certains cas, réduire la corrélation. Il est donc nécessaire de poursuivre les recherches dans ce domaine. On a dressé des répertoires chronologiques, allant de 1705 à 1980. Ils tiennent compte de 15 variables provenant des anneaux de croissance et obtenues par densitométrie ra-diologique sur 16 noyaux de Picea. On a ensuite réparti les variables en trois groupes principaux en se fondant sur la largeur des anneaux, la densité du bois de printemps et les particularités du bois d'automne. Chaque groupe réagit différemment au climat, si bien que les données climatiques indirectes risquent d'être plus importantes que celles que fournissent les seules mesures de largeur des anneaux de croissance. L'élaboration de la fonction de transfert est incomplète, mais on donne, à titre d'exemple, les résultats préliminaires touchant les températures d'été de juin à juillet (R2 = 0,46) et les précipitations de décembre à mars (R2 = 0,40). À l'aide de ces équations on a pu effectuer des reconstitutions climatiques préliminaires pour la période allant de 1710 à 1980.Es werden vorlâufige Ergebnisse vorgestellt von Studien. die mittels Sauerstoff-lsotopen und der Dichte der Baumjahresringe indirekte klimatische Daten von Picea engelmannii und Abies Iasiocarpa in den kanadischen Rockies gewinnen. Es erscheinen signifikante Korrelationen zwischen durchschnittlichen Jahrestemperaturen und den δ18O Bestimmungen auf den Jahresringen von drei Bâu-men in fùnf Jahresgruppen. Jedoch weisen unerklàrte Anomalien in diesen Beziehungen darauf hin, daB Wirkungen der Ring-Breite dièse Korrelation in manchen Fallen reduzieren kann, und dafî weitere Forschungsarbeit notwendig ist. Fur die Zeit von 1705-1980 wurden chronologische Register entwickelt fur 15 Baum-Ring-Variablen. Dièse wurden durch Messung der Dichte von 16 Picea Kernen mittels Rôntgenaufnahmen gewonnen. Die Analyse der hauptsàchlichen Komponenten diente der Identifizierung von drei Gruppen von Variablen, die in intensiver Wechselbeziehung stehen, wobei man sich auf die Breite der Ringe, die Dichte des Frùhjahrsbaumwuchses und die Charakteristika des Herbstbaumwuchses bezog. Jede Gruppe reagiert anders auf klimatische Einflùsse, so daB die indirekt gewonnenen klimatischen Daten wichtiger sind, als die allein durch Messung der Ring-Weite gewonnenen. Die Ausarbeitung der Transferfunktion ist unvollstândig, aber vorlâufige Ergebnisse fur Sommertemperatur (Juni und JuIi, R2 = 0.46) und Dezember bis Màrz Niederschlag (R2 = 0.40) werden als Beispiel dargestellt. Mittels dieser Gleichungen werden vorlâufige Rekonstruktionen fur die Période von 1710 bis 1980 vorgestellt

Ocean forcing of glacier retreat in the western Antarctic Peninsula

In recent decades, hundreds of glaciers draining the Antarctic Peninsula (63° to 70°S) have undergone systematic and progressive change. These changes are widely attributed to rapid increases in regional surface air temperature, but it is now clear that this cannot be the sole driver. Here, we identify a strong correspondence between mid-depth ocean temperatures and glacier-front changes along the ~1000-kilometer western coastline. In the south, glaciers that terminate in warm Circumpolar Deep Water have undergone considerable retreat, whereas those in the far northwest, which terminate in cooler waters, have not. Furthermore, a mid-ocean warming since the 1990s in the south is coincident with widespread acceleration of glacier retreat. We conclude that changes in ocean-induced melting are the primary cause of retreat for glaciers in this region

Basal crevasses in Larsen C Ice Shelf and implications for their global abundance

Basal crevasses extend upwards from the base of ice bodies and can penetrate more than halfway through the ice column under conditions found commonly on ice shelves. As a result, they may locally modify the exchange of mass and energy between ice shelf and ocean, and by altering the shelf's mechanical properties could play a fundamental role in ice shelf stability. Although early studies revealed that such features may be abundant on Antarctic ice shelves, their geometrical properties and spatial distribution has gained little attention. We investigate basal crevasses in Larsen C Ice Shelf using field radar survey, remote sensing and numerical modelling. We demonstrate that a group of features visible in MODIS imagery are the surface expressions of basal crevasses in the form of surface troughs, and find that basal crevasses can be generated as a result of stresses well downstream of the grounding line. We show that linear elastic fracture mechanics modelling is a good predictor of basal crevasse penetration height where stresses are predominantly tensile, and that measured surface trough depth does not always reflect this height, probably because of snow accumulation in the trough, marine ice accretion in the crevasse, or stress bridging from the surrounding ice. We conclude that all features visible in MODIS imagery of ice shelves and previously labelled simply as "crevasses", where they are not full thickness rifts, must be basal crevasse troughs, highlighting a fundamental structural property of many ice shelves that may have been previously overlooked

Calving rates at tidewater glaciers vary strongly with ocean temperature

TerraSAR-X data were provided by DLR (project OCE1503), and funded by the Conoco Phillips-Lundin Northern Area Program through the CRIOS project (Calving Rates and Impact on Sea level). A.L. and S.B. are affiliated to the Climate Change Consortium of Wales (C3W). Mooring work is supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council (Oceans 2025 and Northern Sea Program) and the Research Council of Norway (projects Cleopatra: 178766, Cleopatra II: 216537, and Circa: 214271/F20). Contribution by F.C. was undertaken through the Scottish Alliance for Geoscience Environment and Society (SAGES).Rates of ice mass loss at the calving margins of tidewater glaciers (frontal ablation rates) are a key uncertainty in sea level rise projections. Measurements are difficult because mass lost is replaced by ice flow at variable rates, and frontal ablation incorporates sub-aerial calving, and submarine melt and calving. Here we derive frontal ablation rates for three dynamically contrasting glaciers in Svalbard from an unusually dense series of satellite images. We combine ocean data, ice-front position and terminus velocity to investigate controls on frontal ablation. We find that frontal ablation is not dependent on ice dynamics, nor reduced by glacier surface freeze-up, but varies strongly with sub-surface water temperature. We conclude that calving proceeds by melt undercutting and ice-front collapse, a process that may dominate frontal ablation where submarine melt can outpace ice flow. Our findings illustrate the potential for deriving simple models of tidewater glacier response to oceanographic forcing.Publisher PDFPeer reviewe